The Battle of Sedan, Franco-Prussian War

The Prussian victory in the Franco-Prussian War (as a direct result of the Battle of Sedan) not only shattered the French army but also set the stage for a seismic shift in European power. The once-disparate Germanic states, emboldened by their triumph, coalesced into a formidable empire under a unified banner. Yet, this victory was a double-edged sword, forging an enmity between France and Germany that simmered like a dormant volcano, destined to erupt decades later in the cataclysm of World War I. This clash, born of blood and iron, would etch a legacy of bitterness that shaped the course of history.

Sedan, France. 1 September, 1870.
Prussian Forces: 200,000 Soldiers.
French Forces: 120,000 Soldiers. 

Additional Reading and Reference Materials:

• Carr, William. The Origin of the Wars of German Unification.
• Forster, Stig. On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the Franco-German War.
• Aronson, Theo. The Fall of the Third Napoleon.
• Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World. 
• Howard, Michael. The Franco-Prussian War.

Chapters

• 0:39 Prussian Military Reform
• 1:55 Bismarck's Reasons
• 3:30 Spanish Succession Hostilities
• 5:04 Bismarck's Provocation, France's Response
• 6:34 French Early Victories
• 7:15 Prussian Counter Offensive
• 8:38 Retreating French Fight
• 10:17 The Battle of Sedan
• 11:03 Napoleon III's Acceptance of the Inevitable
• 12:45 Napoleon Surrenders
• 13:33 Prussia's Spoils
• 14:47 Prussian Unification Under One Banner
• 16:04 French Resolve
• 17:21 Battle Tactics Learned

Transcript

Welcome to History's Greatest Battles. Season one, episode five, the Battle of Sedan, in modern day France. 1st of September, 1870. Prussian forces estimated at 200,000 men. French forces estimated at 120,000 men; led by Emperor Napoleon III.

In the mid-19th century, Prussia emerged as the preeminent state within the German territories, wielding unmatched influence and power. Its ascent to dominance was primarily fueled by the exceptional quality and discipline of its military forces. Following its humiliating defeat by Napoleon Bonaparte at Jena and Auerstädt in 1806, the Prussian military embarked on a relentless quest to reclaim the glory of Frederick the Great's era and to prevent any recurrence of such a debacle. They committed themselves to becoming the finest military force in the world. Pioneering the world's first General Staff, Prussia institutionalized excellence across every phase of military operations, setting a standard for strategic innovation. This system demonstrated its efficacy in 1866 when Prussia decisively defeated its erstwhile ally Austria in a conflict over Schleswig and Holstein, a victory that seemed more like a prelude to an inevitable confrontation with France.

Guided by the astute leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Prussia united the lesser German states under the North German Confederation, setting its sights on the unification of all Germanic principalities into a single, formidable nation. Bismarck envisioned a war with France as the catalyst to galvanize German nationalism and complete the unification process. Across the Rhine, Napoleon III had held the reins of power in France since the revolution of 1848. Though the Second Empire under Napoleon III was but a faint echo of the First Empire’s grandeur, France remained determined to retain its influence in global affairs, despite its inability to recapture past glories. During the Austro-Prussian War, Napoleon III extended tacit support to Prussia, enticed by vague promises of rewards. France had aspired to annex borderlands along the western Rhine following the war, but Bismarck adamantly refused to surrender any German territory to foreign powers. Bismarck further thwarted French ambitions by obstructing a proposed purchase of Luxembourg from the Dutch. When Napoleon sought to extend French influence into Belgium through significant investments in the nation's railways, Bismarck strategically reminded England of the threat posed by potential French dominance over the English Channel coast, leading to British opposition that swiftly curtailed French ambitions. In response to these French maneuvers, Bismarck successfully persuaded Bavaria, a key southern German state, to enter into a defensive alliance.

The issue of succession to the Spanish throne soon brought Franco-Prussian tensions to a critical juncture. Following the deposition of Queen Isabella in 1868, Spain reorganized itself as a constitutional monarchy, though it remained without a sovereign. In secrecy, the Spanish government extended an offer of the crown to Prince Leopold of the House of Hohenzollern, a distant relative of Prussian King Wilhelm. Negotiations for Leopold’s candidacy were discreetly carried out between the Spanish government and the Prussian court. Although King Wilhelm showed little enthusiasm for the plan and at times voiced opposition, Bismarck ardently championed Leopold’s candidacy. Upon discovering these negotiations, the French grew alarmed at the prospect of being encircled by members of the Hohenzollern dynasty. The French ambassador to Prussia secured a meeting with Wilhelm in Holland, successfully obtaining a withdrawal of Prussian backing for Leopold, but overreached by insisting that no future claimant to the Spanish throne should come from the Hohenzollern dynasty. Upon receiving this demand in a telegram, Bismarck manipulated the message to imply that the French had insulted Wilhelm and that the Kaiser had curtly dismissed the ambassador, inflaming tensions. This provocation incited French public opinion to the brink of war, and a frustrated Napoleon III, continually thwarted by Prussia, ultimately acquiesced to the call for conflict.

The Prussian military, ever-prepared, swiftly mobilized alongside the armies of Bavaria, Baden, and Württemberg, rallying their forces in unison. Within a mere three weeks, Prussia and its allies amassed nearly half a million troops at the frontier, a force surpassing the total that France would be able to field throughout the entire conflict. French mobilization, by contrast, was a picture of disarray, with soldiers arriving at their rendezvous points and the front lines woefully under-equipped. Demonstrating their strategic acumen, the Prussian General Staff efficiently utilized railroads for troop transport, a technique refined from lessons observed during the American Civil War. While the Prussian military meticulously prepared contingency plans for the campaign, Napoleon III hastily cobbled together a strategy on the eve of his departure to the front. Napoleon III pinned his hopes on securing an early victory in southern Germany, which he believed would draw Austria and Italy into the conflict on France’s side. Strangely enough, despite the initial chaos, the campaign began on a promising note for the French. On July 30, 1870, four French corps advanced from the fortress city of Metz, launching an offensive against Prussian forces stationed just across the border at Saarbrücken. By August 2, they had effortlessly dispersed the small Prussian force defending Saarbrücken, but a lack of organization and decisive action prevented them from occupying the city. This fleeting success would be among the few bright moments for the French in the entire conflict.

The Prussians swiftly responded with a counteroffensive to the south, forcing the French forces into a retreat toward Strasbourg. Desperate to halt the Prussian advance, French General Maurice MacMahon launched a cavalry charge on August 6 near the town of Wörth, but the French forces were decimated. Simultaneously, a northern Prussian offensive achieved victory at Spicheren, compounding French losses. Faced with two swift defeats, a demoralized Napoleon III ordered the abandonment of Metz and commanded the French army to retreat. Initially hesitant to engage in war, the emperor now sank into deep demoralization, a sentiment that rapidly permeated the ranks of his army. Aware that he could neither command the army's movements nor earn its respect, Napoleon relinquished control to Marshal François Bazaine, who, though slightly more assertive, shared his overall indecisiveness. Napoleon departed for Chalons, intent on raising another army. As the French army retreated toward Verdun, they found themselves cut off by the swiftly advancing Prussian forces. Prussian commander Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke ordered the destruction of the retreating French forces, but in the ensuing battle at Vionville, the French soldiers fought tenaciously, delivering a formidable performance in the bloody clash. Although this engagement somewhat bolstered their confidence, Bazaine, ever cautious, ordered the army to reverse course and return to Metz. En route, the Prussians launched another assault at Gravelotte, where they suffered a severe defeat. Yet, despite this victory, Bazaine remained disheartened and unmotivated. Bazaine’s retreat back to Metz culminated in a protracted siege.

Marshal MacMahon was then tasked with leading the newly formed Army of Chalons to relieve Metz, and on August 21, he marched 130,000 troops out of the city. His army, comprising mainly refugees from Parisian jails, was even less disciplined than Bazaine's already unruly forces. A dispirited Napoleon III accompanied them on this forlorn march. Upon learning of MacMahon’s movements, Moltke astutely ordered a holding force to maintain the siege at Metz, while directing the majority of his army to confront MacMahon. The two forces collided on August 30 at Beaumont, just west of the Meuse River, prompting MacMahon to order a retreat into the town of Sedan. Sedan appeared to be a defensible position from which to regroup and possibly launch a counterattack. He positioned his troops in a triangular formation around the town, entrenching them on the high ground for better defense. Moltke’s forces swiftly moved to encircle the town, effectively severing any potential avenues for French reinforcement. Unfortunately for the French, the Germans occupied even higher ground, and by the evening of August 31, they began bombarding the city with artillery fire.

In the early hours of September 1, Napoleon III resolved to face his destiny, whether it would bring him glory or infamy. With an air of resigned acceptance, he adopted an eerie calmness. Despite being in excruciating pain from kidney stones, he mounted his horse and rode out to the battlefield. The morning began with a fierce Prussian cannonade, soon followed by an assault on the nearby village of Bazeilles. The battle at Bazeilles raged with relentless intensity throughout the morning and into the early afternoon. MacMahon was wounded during the fighting and relinquished command to General Auguste Ducrot. Ducrot swiftly ordered an attempt to break out of the Prussian encirclement by advancing westward. As the troops moved to execute this maneuver, Ducrot was confronted by General Emmanuel de Wimpffen, who had recently arrived from a command post in Morocco. Brandishing orders from the War Minister, Wimpffen assumed command, countermanding Ducrot’s retreat and instead ordering the troops to retake Bazeilles. Throughout the day, Napoleon III rode near the fiercest combat, flirting with danger and possible death; his newfound composure inspired a degree of confidence in the beleaguered French soldiers. He then returned to Sedan to consult with MacMahon.

While in Sedan, he received news of a Prussian victory at Floing, roughly a mile north of the town. A French cavalry charge at Floing had ended in disastrous failure. Combined with the relentless barrage of Prussian artillery and the growing chaos within Sedan, this defeat convinced Napoleon to surrender. As he observed soldiers and civilians alike frantically seeking refuge within the city, Napoleon ordered a white flag raised at 16:30, signaling surrender. Wimpffen initially resisted his emperor’s decision to surrender, but when Moltke sent two officers under a flag of truce, Napoleon insisted they be received. Until that moment, the Pr

ussians had been unaware that the French emperor himself was present in Sedan. Negotiations stretched through the night, and on September 2, Napoleon instructed Wimpffen to sign the surrender document. The entire remnants of the Army of Chalons, numbering over 100,000 men, along with 6,000 horses and 419 artillery pieces, fell into Prussian hands. Emperor Napoleon III surrendered himself to Prussian Kaiser Wilhelm, who had personally overseen Moltke’s triumph. Napoleon III spent several months in captivity in Germany before going into exile in England.

The Prussian victory at Sedan did not immediately end the war, but it shattered the French army beyond repair. Bazaine managed to hold out in Metz until October 27, though any hope of relief had long since vanished. With the bulk of the French army captured in just two battles, the Prussians and their allies encountered minimal resistance as they advanced on Paris. Although the citizens of Paris mounted a valiant defense, the odds were insurmountable, and success was beyond reach. On January 19, Paris, too, capitulated. Having dominated the lesser Germanic states throughout the century, the Prussians now seized the moment to unite them under a single banner. On January 18, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, Wilhelm presided over the proclamation of the German Empire. He ascended as the emperor of the newly unified Germany, with his Chancellor Bismarck at the helm of the government. Germany imposed a severe peace upon France, exacting the cession of the valuable border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, along with a hefty indemnity of five billion francs, approximately three billion dollars. France's crushing defeat marked the end of Napoleon III’s Second Empire, paving the way for the establishment of the Third Republic. France found itself at one of the most abysmal moments in its long history.

In the aftermath of the Prussian withdrawal, a revolutionary government in Paris was brutally crushed by the remnants of the French army. Any lingering dreams of imperial glory that had been kindled in 1854 were now but distant memories. With little to dwell on but the future, the French army resolved to ensure that the outcome of their next encounter with the Germans would be vastly different. They established their own General Staff, which was responsible for the development of Plan XVII, a strategy meticulously designed for Germany’s defeat in the next war. Harboring deep hostility toward Germany, France began to challenge its eastern neighbor on the global stage, particularly in the race for colonial acquisitions, with a focus on Africa. Aligning with Great Britain, which was increasingly wary of Germany’s naval expansion, France rebuilt its stature as a colonial power, a strategy that significantly bolstered national morale by century’s end. Prussia, now unified as Germany, emerged from the war as the most formidable power on the European continent. Its military became unassailable, while its burgeoning industry soon rivaled that of Great Britain. This growing rivalry between Germany and Britain would become one of the many catalysts for the First World War. The German military reaffirmed that artillery continued to dominate the battlefield, offering a decisive advantage. This lesson was further validated by observers of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, ensuring that when World War I erupted, Germany’s firepower was unmatched. The strategic military use of railroads, already proven effective in the United States, gained paramount importance in European warfare. The German General Staff emerged as the true architect of victory, prompting not only France but every major power to adopt a similar structure. Although Moltke and his subordinates committed notable errors, such as at Gravelotte, their ultimate victory overshadowed these missteps. The wars of the future would no longer be won solely by soldiers, but by the planners and strategists who orchestrated their movements from behind the scenes.