The Battle of Rivoli, 1797; Napoleon Bonaparte's First Major Command

The Battle of Rivoli, a decisive turning point in Napoleon’s initial Italian campaign against Austria, blazed like a firebrand through the annals of warfare. Here, Napoleon’s tactical brilliance unfolded with the precision of a master chess player, each maneuver an exquisite stroke of genius that stunned his adversaries. Rivoli not only cemented his legacy as a military prodigy but also unleashed the French legions to sweep over northern Italy like a conquering storm, marking the dawn of a new era in European power.

Rivoli. 14 January, 1797.
French Forces: 23,000 Soldiers.
Austrian Forces: 28,000 Soldiers.

Additional Reading and Research:

• Chandler, David. The Campaigns of Napoleon.
• Green, Jeremy. Napoleon's Masterful Italian Campaign.
• Shosenberg, James. Napoleon's Masterstroke at Rivoli.

Transcript

Welcome to History's Greatest Battles. Season 01, Episode 17: The Battle of Rivoli, 14th of January,  1797.

French Forces: 23,000 men lead by Napoleon Bonaparte

Austrian Forces: 28,000 men.

The Battle of Rivoli, a decisive turning point in Napoleon’s initial Italian campaign against Austria, blazed like a firebrand through the annals of warfare. Here, Napoleon’s tactical brilliance unfolded with the precision of a master chess player, each maneuver an exquisite stroke of genius that stunned his adversaries. Rivoli not only cemented his legacy as a military prodigy but also unleashed the French legions to sweep over northern Italy like a conquering storm, marking the dawn of a new era in European power.

As the blade of the guillotine silenced the royal bloodline of Louis XVI, his queen, and thousands of their loyal followers, a shiver of dread rippled through the courts of Europe. By January 1793, monarchs from London to Vienna were haunted by the specter of rebellion creeping ever closer to their own gates. The memory of the American colonies casting off the yoke of royal rule in 1783 was still a fresh wound, and now, with the French revolutionaries raising the standard of liberté, égalité, fraternité, the crowned heads of Europe feared the revolutionary contagion was knocking at their very doors. Terrified that their own subjects might be inspired by the revolutionary fervor of America and France, a coalition of European monarchs banded together, determined to invade France, reinstate the monarchy, and extinguish the revolutionary flame before it could ignite their own lands.

But their efforts were in vain. France, bolstered by a massive levy en masse and innovative battlefield tactics, stood firm against the onslaught, turning back the invaders with a ferocity that echoed the roar of artillery across its bloodied fields. By 1796, the coalition had withered, leaving only Great Britain and Austria officially at war with the French Republic. The French Directory, weary of defensive postures and attrition, resolved to unleash their forces on the offensive, seeking to carry the war into enemy territory. To lead this audacious campaign, they dispatched Napoleon Bonaparte, a burgeoning military genius whose meteoric rise in the French army had already turned heads, to command the forces poised against the Austrians entrenched in northern Italy.

Despite this being his first major command, Napoleon moved with the confidence of a seasoned veteran. Arriving at Nice to take charge of the Army of Italy, he dazzled his seasoned subordinates with his strategic acumen and relentless vigor, breathing new life into their flagging spirits. Seizing the initiative, Napoleon exploited the fatal flaw in his enemies’ position: though they outnumbered his forces, they were hopelessly scattered across the Piedmont, the westernmost bastion of northern Italy. On the cusp of launching his offensive on April 15, 1796, Napoleon was compelled to act prematurely when General Baron Johann Beaulieu of Austria struck on April 10, launching an assault on French troops stationed at Alessandria, northwest of Genoa.

Meanwhile, a second Austrian force was advancing from the west, converging with a Piedmontese contingent encamped at Ceva, extending the enemy’s reach even further into the French operational theater. With a lightning stroke, Napoleon targeted the second Austrian column, launching a ferocious assault that drove General de Argenteau and his 20,000 men back from Montenotte on April 12, shattering the enemy’s lines. Pivoting swiftly to the west, Napoleon unleashed his forces against the Piedmontese at Ceva, relentlessly pressing them through Mondavi, pursuing their retreating forces all the way to the gates of Turin. Faced with the unstoppable momentum of the French advance, the king of Piedmont had no choice but to seek peace, handing Napoleon not only a diplomatic victory but also a trove of captured arms and newly emboldened soldiers. Savoy and Nice were ceded to France, expanding the Republic’s dominion.

With his rear secured and no threat of Piedmontese interference, Napoleon turned his full attention to the Austrians, who had retreated to fortified positions north of the Po River. General Beaulieu, abandoning Alessandria, had regrouped his forces into a formidable defensive line at Valenza, securing the vital crossing of the Po River. In a deft maneuver, Napoleon feigned an assault on Valenza, but instead executed a swift crossing fifty miles east at Piacenza, thereby endangering the Austrian supply lines and forcing them into a precarious retreat. Forced to retreat northeast, Beaulieu found himself unable to establish a solid defensive position at Lodi, as Napoleon’s relentless pursuit kept the Austrians on their heels. On May 10, Beaulieu suffered yet another stinging defeat at Lodi, prompting a hasty withdrawal another hundred miles to the Adige River, with Napoleon’s forces nipping at his heels.

Napoleon paused his pursuit to make a triumphant entry into Milan on May 15, solidifying French control. There, he received word that the Directory contemplated appointing him a co-commander, yet his swelling popularity and the lucrative spoils of war flowing back to Paris convinced them otherwise. Beaulieu entrenched his weary forces within the formidable walls of Mantua, but Napoleon was quick to respond, marching his army to encircle the city, initiating a siege that would choke the Austrians. Throughout the long summer and into the autumn of 1796, Napoleon repelled numerous Austrian counteroffensives, skillfully exploiting his central position to outmaneuver and dismantle the disjointed Austrian attacks.

At the battle of Bassano on September 8, Field Marshal Dagobert von Würmser faced a crushing defeat, with the remnants of his forces retreating into Mantua, swelling the garrison to 23,000 men and further depleting the city’s already meager provisions. By year’s end, Napoleon commanded the Adige River valley, though his forces were spread perilously thin, extending from Rivoli, near Lake Garda’s eastern shore, through Verona and Ronco, all the way to Legnano. Having claimed most of northern Italy for the French Republic, Napoleon faced an Austrian foe that remained defiant. The Austrians, resolute and unyielding, aimed to break through the French lines, relieve the beleaguered Mantua, and link up with reinforcements from the Papal States, which had recently turned against France.

Should the Austrian forces converge with those in Mantua and the Papal reinforcements, Napoleon would find himself heavily outnumbered. Thus, he once more relied on his strategic advantage of central positioning to prevent this dangerous union. Emerging from the Tyrolean highlands, Austrian General of Infantry Josef Alvintzy devised a plan to split his forces into two columns: one would sweep across the Venetian plains, threatening the French southern flank at Legnano, while the other would advance down the Adige River, aiming to roll up the French defenses from the north.

Alvintzy's plan aimed to trap Napoleon in a strategic dilemma: should Napoleon commit his reserves to counter the southern thrust, the northern attack would proceed unopposed; if he held back, the southern force could breach Legnano, potentially lifting the siege of Mantua or uniting with the Papal troops advancing from the south. To execute this maneuver, General Alvintzy personally led the northern column, entrusting Major General Johann Provera with the southern assault. Mirroring the larger strategy, Provera divided his own forces into two columns and initiated simultaneous assaults on Verona and Legnano between January 9 and 10, 1797.

Initially uncertain whether Provera’s offensive represented the main thrust, Napoleon reasoned that given the winter conditions of January, a push across the flatter Venetian plains was more plausible than a major assault emerging from the snow-clad mountains of the Tyrol. On January 12, reports reached Napoleon that his northern flank at La Corona, under the command of Major General Barthelémy Joubert, had come under Austrian assault. Napoleon, still gauging the primary focus of the enemy’s advance, received word on January 13 from Joubert that he was being forced to withdraw in the face of substantial Austrian forces.

Joubert made a stand at the small town of Rivoli, roughly 15 miles northwest of Verona, in the early hours of January 13. In response, Napoleon swiftly mobilized his troops to reinforce his beleaguered northern flank. Leaving behind four divisions—totaling around 24,000 men—to guard the southern sector, Napoleon marched his remaining forces northward along the Adige River, pressing towards Rivoli. Napoleon arrived in the dead of night between January 13 and 14, encountering Joubert’s 10,000-strong contingent in retreat, still awaiting orders to counter the Austrian advance.

Immediately, Napoleon ordered Joubert’s forces to reoccupy the heights northwest of Rivoli, where the flickering light of Austrian campfires illuminated the plateau on the Trombalore Heights. Napoleon directed his men to seize the church of San Marco, a strategic vantage point overlooking the battlefield, while also securing the Osteria Gorge, a deep canyon flanking the Adige River that emptied near Rivoli, a potential avenue for an Austrian flanking maneuver. Realizing that an Austrian column advancing through the gorge could outflank his position on the heights, Napoleon anticipated a classic double envelopment: the Austrians would likely launch a frontal assault across the plateau while other columns maneuvered through the gorge and around his western left flank.

Determined to disrupt the Austrian plan, Napoleon preemptively ordered an assault at dawn on January 14, catching the enemy off guard and throwing their preparations into disarray. Although this bold move temporarily disrupted the Austrian strategy, the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Austrians soon forced the French to fall back, abandoning their hold on San Marco. Yet, in a daring counterstroke, the French retook the hilltop church before the Austrians could establish their grip, fortifying their position and bracing for the inevitable wave of Austrian attacks.

The principal Austrian force launched a concerted assault on San Marco while simultaneously exerting pressure on Joubert’s line along the ridgeline. Austrian artillery positioned across the Adige unleashed a barrage that forced the French to relinquish control of the Osteria Gorge. However, the Austrian success hinged on securing San Marco to anchor their left center and to sustain any offensive originating from the gorge. Compounding the French predicament, the Austrian flanking maneuver to the west was progressing with alarming success. General François-Joseph, Marquis de Lusignan, had overwhelmed Napoleon’s blocking force, threatening to sever the French rear and isolate them from any reinforcements arriving from the south.

Responding with characteristic decisiveness, Napoleon deployed his reserves—elements of Major General André Masséna’s cavalry brigade—to counter Lusignan’s advancing forces. Napoleon then stretched Joubert’s defensive line on the heights above Rivoli, reallocating troops and artillery to reinforce the defenses at the mouth of the Osteria Gorge. As Austrian troops emerged from the gorge, they were met with a devastating hail of grapeshot, halting their advance and sowing chaos. In a daring maneuver, just twenty-six French cavalrymen charged headlong into the Austrian ranks, inciting panic and causing the threat to the French right flank to disintegrate.

Sensing the tide of battle turning in his favor, Napoleon commanded Joubert’s troops to descend from their elevated positions and engage on the plain, where the Austrian assaults had already exhausted themselves. The Austrian lines crumbled, and a well-timed French cavalry charge sent their forces into a disordered retreat. Simultaneously, Masséna not only confronted Lusignan’s flanking attack but decisively halted it in its tracks. As Lusignan’s forces focused their attention northward toward Rivoli and Masséna’s troops, French reinforcements under Brigadier General Baron Louis Rey struck from the rear, capturing nearly half of Lusignan’s 4,000 men.

At 11:00 AM on January 14, Napoleon had faced the grim prospect of encirclement by a numerically superior enemy. By 4:00 PM, the tables had turned, and the Austrians were in a full-scale rout. Word of Provera’s forces crossing the Adige at Legnano forced Napoleon to halt his pursuit of the fleeing Austrians; a new threat loomed, threatening the integrity of his stretched French line. Leaving Joubert to maintain pressure on the retreating Austrians at Rivoli, Napoleon turned southward with Masséna to reinforce Brigadier General Charles Pierre Augereau at Legnano.

Joubert’s pursuit proved devastatingly effective; by the afternoon of January 15, half of Alvintzy’s 28,000-strong force lay dead, captured, or dispersed across the countryside. Close to Legnano, Austrian General Provera breached the French defenses after a nighttime crossing of the Adige, but his forces faltered in their attempt to storm the city on January 14. Provera managed to establish contact with Field Marshal Würmser, urging a coordinated breakout from the besieged fortress of Mantua to align with his relief operation. Unbeknownst to either Provera or Würmser, Napoleon’s rapid maneuver from Rivoli enabled him to position his forces squarely between their armies, thwarting the planned linkup.

Caught by surprise, Würmser’s forces withdrew back into Mantua’s walls, while Provera found himself trapped between Napoleon’s advancing troops and Augereau’s forces, which had pursued him from Legnano. Cornered and outmatched, Provera surrendered his 7,000 men. Upon hearing of Provera’s capitulation and the catastrophe at Rivoli, Würmser capitulated as well. His garrison, reduced to half-rations and on the brink of starvation, had no prospect of relief for at least two months. On February 2, 1797, Würmser opened Mantua’s gates to Napoleon, conceding the fortress city to the French.

Following a relentless series of defeats in northern Italy, the Austrian army was battered and demoralized. Unrelenting, Napoleon prepared for a bold offensive aimed directly at Vienna, setting his sights on spring. In a preemptive strike, French forces expelled Austrian troops from the Tyrolean mountains in March, seizing the critical arsenal at Trieste on April 18. Recognizing the dire straits they were in, the Austrian government opened peace negotiations with France, culminating in the signing of the Treaty of Campo Formio on October 17, 1797.

Napoleon’s campaign not only secured a decisive victory for France over a major European power but also brought the entire expanse of northern Italy under French control. Beyond the battlefield, Napoleon was reshaping the political landscape of northern Italy, merging Milan, Bologna, and Modena into the new Cisalpine Republic, a political reformation ratified by the peace treaty. For the first time, the revolutionary principles of liberty and equality crossed French borders, taking root in Italy and heralding the ideological expansion of the French Revolution into broader Europe.

This glimpse of democratic governance sparked the first stirrings of national consciousness in the Italian provinces, a sentiment unseen since the era of the Roman Empire. Initially, the less literate Italian populace was slow to embrace the revolutionary ideas Napoleon propagated, and resentment simmered over the perceived disrespect toward the Pope. Yet, over time, acceptance of French administration grew, and through adaptation and participation, they began to reap its benefits.

More significantly for Europe, the Battle of Rivoli marked the zenith of Napoleon’s inaugural campaign, propelling him from relative obscurity to international renown in the span of mere months. At just 28 years of age during the Battle of Rivoli, Napoleon displayed a level of military genius that few in Europe could match—his brilliance reminiscent of Frederick the Great's strategic acumen half a century prior. Napoleon’s masterful exploitation of the central position—maneuvering to insert himself between divided enemy forces and defeating them in detail—emerged as his tactical signature.

Over the ensuing years, Napoleon introduced further tactical innovations, yet it was his uncanny ability to perceive the strategic big picture and respond with blinding speed that confounded his adversaries for the better part of two decades. With an army that grew both in size and experience, Napoleon led France out of the throes of revolution and into the era of empire. Simultaneously, Napoleon sowed the seeds of revolution in every land he conquered, inadvertently planting the origins of his own downfall. His spread of nationalism ignited a yearning for freedom among the subjugated, creating a groundswell of resistance to foreign occupation.

Amidst his campaign, following his triumph at Lodi, Napoleon himself reflected, "that I believed myself a superior man, and that the ambition came to me of executing the great things which so far had been occupying my thoughts only as a fantastic dream" (Green, "Napoleon's Masterful Italian Campaign"). Napoleon demonstrated his superiority first in Italy and later across Western Europe. A contemporary from the French War Ministry echoed this sentiment, writing to the Directory, "There is nobody here who does not look upon him as a man of genius, and he is effectively that.... It is with calm that I write, and no interest guides me except that of making you know the truth. Bonaparte will be put by posterity in the rank of the greatest men" (Green, "Napoleon's Masterful Italian Campaign"). With his decisive victory over the Austrians at Rivoli, Napoleon secured his place among the pantheon of history’s greatest military commanders.